Current advances in alternative lipids for sustainable aquafeeds: Nutritional requirements, processing technologies, environmental sustainability, and future directions
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.20372/star.V15.i3.R1Keywords:
Alternative lipid sources, Aquafeeds, essential fatty acids, fish oil replacement, precision nutritionAbstract
Aquafeeds provide lipids for energy, EFAs, and fat-soluble vitamin absorption. Aquaculture demand is rising, while global fish oil (FO) production remains at 1 million metric tons. Most marine predators need EPA and DHA supplements, although freshwater animals can synthesize long-chain omega-3s from plant-derived C18 polyunsaturated fatty acids. FO has been the main lipid source in fish feed; however, limited marine-sourced sources and high demand and costs cause problems. We discuss alternate lipid sources in development, including vegetable oil, animal fat, microalgae oil, genetically engineered oilseed crops, insect oil, single-cell oil, and food sector byproducts. Lipid sources' nutritional quality and restrictions affect fish health and performance. Advanced technologies, including precision nutrition, lipid blending, encapsulation, and feed formulation, are examined. Some freshwater species can survive without FO, unlike marine fish that need EPA and DHA. Life-cycle assessment data show that insect oils and fish-processing byproduct oils have lower carbon, land-use, and water-use footprints than conventional FO and many crop-derived oils, emphasizing the importance of sustainability metrics in lipid selection. Multigenerational consequences, species-specific lipid demands, gut flora interactions, and consumer attitudes toward new feed components need more research.
Downloads
References
Bell, J., & Sargent, J. R. (2003). Arachidonic acid in aquaculture feeds: current status and future opportunities. Aquaculture, 218(1–4), 491–499.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0044-8486(02)00370-8
Bell, M. V., & Tocher, D. R. (2009). Biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids in aquatic ecosystems: general pathways and new directions. In Lipid (pp. 211–236). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-89366-2_9
Betancor, M. B., Li, K., Sprague, M., Bardal, T., Sayanova, O., Usher, S., Han, L., Måsøval, K., Torrissen, O., Napier, J. A., Tocher, D. R., & Olsen, R. E. (2017). An oil containing EPA and DHA from transgenic Camelina sativa to replace marine fish oil in feeds for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.): Effects on intestinal transcriptome, histology, tissue fatty acid profiles and plasma biochemistry. PLoS ONE, 12(4), e0175415.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175415
Bureau, D. P., Hua, K., & Harris, A. M. (2008). The Effect of Dietary Lipid and Long‐chain n‐3 PUFA Levels on Growth, Energy Utilization, Carcass Quality, and Immune Function of Rainbow Trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 39(1), 1–21.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2007.001 46.x
Cahu, C. L., Gisbert, E., Villeneuve, L. a. N., Morais, S., Hamza, N., Wold, P., & Infante, J. L. Z. (2009). Influence of dietary phospholipids on early ontogenesis of fish. Aquaculture Research, 40(9), 989–999. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2009.021 90.x
Coutteau, P., Kontara, E. K. M., & Sorgeloos, P. (2000). Comparison of phosphatidylcholine purified from soybean and marine fish roe in the diet of postlarval Penaeus vannamei Boone. Aquaculture, 181(3-4), 331-345.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0044848699002380
Dongyu, Q. (2024). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture—Blue Transformation in Action—ProQuest. https://search.proquest.com/openview/41986cb620287cd5121f2a7c1dfb5d8f/1?pq-origs ite= gscholar&cbl=237309
Ewald, N., Vidakovic, A., Langeland, M., Kiessling, A., Sampels, S., & Lalander, C. (2020). Fatty acid composition of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens)—Possibilities and limitations for modification through diet. Waste Management, 102, 40-47. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X19306440
Ferosekhan, S., Xu, H., Turkmen, S., Gómez, A., Afonso, J. M., Fontanillas, R., Rosenlund, G., Kaushik, S., & Izquierdo, M. (2020). Reproductive performance of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) broodstock showing different expression of fatty acyl desaturase 2 and fed two dietary fatty acid profiles. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 15547. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-72166-5
Glencross, B. D. (2009). Exploring the nutritional demand for essential fatty acids by aquaculture species. Reviews in Aquaculture, 1(2), 71–124.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-5131.2009.010 06.x
Glencross, B., & Smith, D. (2001). A study of the arachidonic acid requirements of the giant tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon. Aquaculture Nutrition, 7(1), 59–69.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2095.2001.001 68.x
Hamre, K. (2010). Metabolism, interactions, requirements, and functions of vitamin E in fish. Aquaculture Nutrition, 17(1), 98–115. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2010.00 806.x
Izquierdo, M. S., Turkmen, S. E. R. H. A. T., Montero, D., Zamorano, M. J., Afonso, J. M., Karalazos, V., & Fernández-Palacios, H. (2015). Nutritional programming through broodstock diets to improve utilization of very low fishmeal and fish oil diets in gilthead sea bream. Aquaculture, 449, 18-26.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0044848615001908
Jobling, M. (2011). National Research Council (NRC): Nutrient requirements of fish and shrimp. Aquaculture International, 20(3), 601–602. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-011-9480-6
Kolkovski, Czesny, Yackey, Moreau, Cihla, Mahan, & Dabrowski. (2000). The effect of vitamins C and E in (n-3) highly unsaturated fatty acid-enriched Artemia nauplii on growth, survival, and stress resistance of freshwater walleye Stizostedion vitreum larvae. Aquaculture Nutrition, 6(3), 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2095.2000.001 12.x
Koven, W., Bracha, C., Nixon, O., Israeli, D., Tandler, A., Meiri-Ashkenazi, I., & Rosenfeld, H. (2023). The effect of dietary taurine and its potential biosynthesis on juvenile grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) performance. Israeli Journal of Aquaculture - Bamidgeh, 75(1). https://doi.org/10.46989/001c.70351
Liland, N. S., Biancarosa, I., Araujo, P., Biemans, D., Bruckner, C. G., Waagbø, R., ... & Lock, E. J. (2017). Modulation of nutrient composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae by feeding seaweed-enriched media. PLoS One, 12(8), e0183188. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0183188
Malcorps, W., Kok, B., Land, M. V., Fritz, M., Van Doren, D., Servin, K., Van Der Heijden, P., Palmer, R., Auchterlonie, N., Rietkerk, M., Santos, M., & Davies, S. (2019). The sustainability conundrum of fishmeal substitution by plant ingredients in shrimp feeds. Sustainability, 11(4), 1212. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041212
Malcorps, W., Newton, R. W., Sprague, M., Glencross, B. D., & Little, D. C. (2021). Nutritional Characterization of European Aquaculture Processing Byproducts to facilitate strategic utilization. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.720595
Miller, M. R., Nichols, P. D., & Carter, C. G. (2006). Replacement of dietary fish oil for Atlantic salmon parr (Salmo salar L.) with a stearidonic acid-containing oil does not affect omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 146(2), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2006.10.099
Monroig, O., Tocher, D. R., & Castro, L. F. C. (2018). Polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis and metabolism in fish. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 31–60). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-811230-4.00003-x
Montero, D., Terova, G., Rimoldi, S., Betancor, M. B., Atalah, E., Torrecillas, S., Caballero, M. J., Zamorano, M. J., & Izquierdo, M. (2015). Modulation of the Expression of Components of the Stress Response by Dietary Arachidonic Acid in European Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) Larvae. Lipids, 50(10), 1029–1041.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-015-4057-1
Napier, J. A., Haslam, R. P., Tsalavouta, M., & Sayanova, O. (2019). The challenges of delivering genetically modified crops with nutritional enhancement traits. Nature Plants, 5(6), 563–567.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-019-0430-z
Naylor, R. L., Hardy, R. W., Buschmann, A. H., Bush, S. R., Cao, L., Klinger, D. H., Little, D. C., Lubchenco, J., Shumway, S. E., & Troell, M. (2021). A 20-year retrospective review of global aquaculture. Nature, 591(7851), 551–563.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03308-6
Ng, W. (2003). Replacement of dietary fish oil with palm fatty acid distillate elevates tocopherol and tocotrienol concentrations and increases oxidative stability in the muscle of African catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Aquaculture, 233(1–4), 423–437.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2003.10.013
Oliveira, A. S., Pereira, A. M., Ferreira, C. M., Pereira, J. O., Amorim, M., Faustino, M., & Carvalho, A. P. (2024). Purification of bioactive peptides from spent yeast autolysates. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 143, 45-53. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960308523001268
Riche, M., Barrows, F. T., Nilles, Z., Mejri, S., Campbell, K., & Wills, P. S. (2023). Replacement of fish oil with a high-DHA algal oil in a fishmeal-free diet fed to Florida pompano (Trachinotus carolinus). Frontiers in Aquaculture, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/faquc.2023.1163542
Santigosa, E., Brambilla, F., & Milanese, L. (2021). Microalgae Oil as an Effective Alternative Source of EPA and DHA for Gilthead Seabream (Sparus aurata) Aquaculture. Animals, 11(4), 971.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11040971
Scott, C., Kwasniewski, S., Falk-Petersen, S., & Sargent, J. (2002). Lipids and fatty acids in the copepod Jaschnovia brevis (Jaschnov) and in particulates from Arctic waters. Polar Biology, 25(1), 65–71.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s003000100312
Sørensen, M. (2012). A review of the effects of ingredient composition and processing conditions on the physical qualities of extruded high-energy fish feed as measured by prevailing methods. Aquaculture Nutrition, 18(3), 233–248.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2011.009 24.x
Sprague, M., Dick, J., & Tocher. (2016). Impact of sustainable feeds on omega-3 long-chain fatty acid levels in farmed Atlantic salmon, 2006–2015. Scientific Reports, 6(1), 21892. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep21892
Sullivan, E. M., Pennington, E. R., Green, W. D., Beck, M. A., Brown, D. A., & Shaikh, S. R. (2018). Mechanisms by which dietary fatty acids regulate mitochondrial structure-function in health and disease. Advances in Nutrition, 9(3), 247-262. https://academic.oup.com/advances/article/9/3/247/4996109
Tocher, D. R. (2003). Metabolism and functions of lipids and fatty acids in teleost fish. Reviews in Fisheries Science, 11(2), 107–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/713610925
Tocher, D. R. (2015). Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and aquaculture in perspective. Aquaculture, 449, 94–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.01.010
Torstensen, B. E., Bell, J. G., Rosenlund, G., Henderson, R. J., Graff, I. E., Tocher, D. R., Lie, Ø., & Sargent, J. R. (2005). Tailoring of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.) Flesh Lipid Composition and Sensory Quality by Replacing Fish Oil with a Vegetable Oil Blend. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53(26), 10166–10178. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf051308i
Trushenski, J. T., Kasper, C. S., & Kohler, C. C. (2006). Challenges and opportunities in FinFish Nutrition. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 68(2), 122–140. https://doi.org/10.1577/a05-006.1
Trushenski, J. T., Rombenso, A. N., & Jackson, C. J. (2019). Reevaluating polyunsaturated fatty acid essentiality in channel catfish. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 82(3), 265–277.
https://doi.org/10.1002/naaq.10136
Turchini, G. M., Torstensen, B. E., & Ng, W. (2009). Fish oil replacement in finfish nutrition. Reviews in Aquaculture, 1(1), 10–57.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.010 01.x
Xue, S., Chi, Z., Chi, Z., Zhang, Y., Li, Y., Liu, G., Jiang, H., Hu, Z., Chi, Z., & Chi, Z. (2018). Fatty acids from oleaginous yeasts and yeast-like fungi and their potential applications. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 38(7), 1049–1060. https://doi.org/10.1080/07388551.2018.1428167
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Science, Technology and Arts Research Journal
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
STAR © Copyright; All rights reserved
Accepted 2026-09-02
Published 2026-09-30
